Mean, Median, Mode

Monday, January 31, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Like SPSS, a data has to be correctly set up once is ranged as otherwise it will effect the rest of the interpretation of data. However, as it's ranged by a human being so occasionally error data may occur. Therefore understanding the basic of the statistic is crucial on the task and the key of studying statistic is knowing where and how to process and to interprete data

Mean, Median, and Mode are the central tendency on statistic though there are still many others use in statistic, such as Variance and Standar Deviation. These are very common terminology on data statistic and used everyday as the languange of the interpreting data. 

These measures of central tendecy has its own formula in interpreting a data. Their functions to summarize and describe a data as well as identifying the value in a data; and most typical and likely scores within a distribution.

Mean

Mean is everyday concept of avarage. This is the sum of scores or values of a variable divided by their number (X). This concept tendency is using a measurement of interval/ration or it's commonly called with scale.

To calculate the arithmetic Mean, we need to sum all the scores in distribution and then divide them by the number of scores.

For example:

2, 4, 6, 2, 2, 7, 9

What is the avarage (mean) from the data above?

  2+4+6+2+2+7+9/2
=35/8
=4,2

Mode

Mode is the scores that occurs at greatest frequency most within the category of scores. This is usually easy to determine it as we can inspect it without computing needs.

For example:

2, 4, 6, 2, 2, 7, 9

The mode for the data above is 2.
Median

Median is really the middle number of a data. However, there are two types of median: event numbers and odd numbers. 

Example of Event numbers: 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73. 

The median of the data above is 69.

Example of Odd numbers: 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74.

We need to calculate to get the median of data above: 69+71= 140      140/2= 70

So the median is 70.

DBLN, 22.00-300111

Tips How To Study Statistics

Wednesday, January 26, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Some class mates of mine often get confuse to decide a variable into a type of measurements, such as Mean, Mode, and Median. In fact, these three majors types of measurements are the very basic that used everyday in statistic so if you don't understand how to use these three basics of statistic then you can't expect to interpret a data flawlessly.

I was told at the very beginning of my class by my lecture that studying statistic can be excited, boring, too difficult, and too easy, and I tell you I got all those feelings. So here I try to reverse the negative into the positive one, from bored into excited. 

A key to success in studying statistic is knowing where and how to use procedures to correctly interpret data, but how if you don't really like the subject? Here some basic tips preparations to study statistics:

It's not too easy nor difficult

Try not to think quickly that it's too easy or too difficult. If you are not very good or having difficulty in learning maths so get your head relax first before taking any step. It's merely a subject that you might not yet understanding or not used to with it.

Also, try not to think that it's too easy. Once you think that it's too easy you'll get bored soon and less interest to study it. So when you find one difficult subject to study the interest and the energy are not there anymore: you are stuck.

Posses statistics books and Calculator

If you want to understand the subject then buy its book. A second book from ebay can be a good idea: so start googling it! Or ask a previous class student who has done it, they may can give you a good deal with the price. 

Another crucial tool in studying statistic is a calculator. Explore any interesting examples on your book with yo ur calculator. For example, looking for the standard deviation.

Books, journals, handouts, internet

Book isn't enough to study, and most students hate a text book. Try something else that can make you more interested in statistic, for example, internet. Dozens of information regarding statistic, they explain it in variety styles so take advantage of this to keep up your interest.

Practise with homework

A homework is given to make you used to it and understand more with the subject, so don't keep it until the next class. Give your first 15 minutes to start it and then see how you get on. Don't give long hours in your study, especially if this is your first time studying statistic.

Ask friend, family, lecture

Not fancy to ask your lecture about your problem in statistic? then try to ask your class mate or anyone in your family who's done statistic before for a help. 

Ask them to explain it slowly if you don't understand at all about the subject. Keeping your problem alone will not resolve anything. The more you keep it the more the problem you gain it and of course the more you hate it.

I hope those tips above can help you to start studying statistic. Have fun with the statistics!

DBLN, 16.47-260111

How to Reject The Null Hyphotesis (Chi Square)

Monday, January 24, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

In a research we sometimes find a statement such as "There is no significance difference between element A  to element B",  the statement is called Null Hyphotesis (Ho). To prove or reject the Null Hypothesis we use a Chi Square formula. 

Chi Square:


Some steps need to be done before we can get the Chi Square value result. Here are some steps how to calculate Chi Square:
  • Determine the expected frequency for each category
  • Calculate according to x2 formula:
      • Substract expexted from observed values 
      • Square each of the result
      • Divide each result by the expected values
      • Sum all results: add them all up
  • Calculate the degree of freedom (check it on your table list of df) 
  • Using the x2  the df
  • Make significance decision
Example
 
Police officer’s question on reading case studies of domestic violence: is there a significant tendency for extreme violence to be charged more often than milder violence?  The data is:
       
                                    Extreme violence       Milder violenc
Charge                                 27                          47 
Not charge                           4                          103

State the hypothesis:

      Ho  There is no significant tendency for extreme   violence to be charged more often than milder   violence.

 Determine the expected frequency for each category.

a. Calculate the expected values

                                      Extreme violence       Milder violence       Total
Charge                                            27                          47                    74
Not charge                                        4                          103                 107
------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total                                           31                          150                  181

 Expected frequency = Column Frequency X (Row Frequency/Overall Frequency)

31 X (74/181)      = 12.67e
31 X (107/181)    = 18.33e
150 X (74/181)    =  61.33e
150 X (107/181)  =  88.67e

b. Substract expected from observed values 

                                      Extreme violence       Milder violence       Total
Charge                                           27                                 47                        74
Not charge                                       4                                103                      107
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total                                          31                                150                      181

(Charge)       =    27o - 12.67e = 14.33        47o - 61.33e =  -14.33
(Not charge) =    4o - 18.32e   =  - 14.33   103o - 88.67e = 14.33

c.Square each of the results
             2                      2                       2                 2
(14.33)         (-14.33)         (- 14.33)         (14.33)
------     +   --------    +  --------  +     -------      =
12.67 e          61.32 e              18.32e          88.67e

205.34/12.67 = 16.21
205.34/61.32 = 3.35
205.34/18.32 = 11.21
205.34/88.67 = 2.31
Summed        = 33.07

d. Calculate the df
 
—Use this – df = (c – 1) x (r – 1) with 2 + variables
—With 1 variable – df = (c – 1).
 
Calculate the degrees of freedom
 
df = (2 – 1) x (2 – 1) = 1
—Chi-square = 33.07 with 1 df.
—This is significant at the 5% level (can also be 1% level, depend on the question).
—There is a significant tendency for extreme violence to be charged.
— According to the result above we can then reject the Null hypothesis.

DBLN, 21.35-230111

Defence Mechanisms (The Rat Man Case)

Friday, January 21, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Ratman case was written by Freud in 1907. He had been diagnosed by Freud suffered from Obssesional Neurosis.  Through a Psychoanalysis threatment Ratman strived to get back into his past life including his childhood, and Freud believed that they were, i.e. Ratman's past life, had given an impact to his illness.

Freud diognised that obssesional neurosis has typical symptoms as follows:

a. He/she has a compulsive acts and thoughts towards something: e.g. a compulsion to suicide in the Ratman case.

b. Obssesion about the past and future; relating both past and future for a sanction; organize everything or make plans about everything.

Similiary in the Little Hans case, Oedipal and Castration complex are also believed as the central of Obssesional neurosis causes. Oedipal and castration complex in childhood is a key of a person's behaviour in future.  

The unresolved of oedipal and castration on the Ratman's childhood led him to such impacts in his adult life -- commit to suicide (compulsive acts and thoughts), being obssesional with things, and fear with something -- the Ratman manipulate defense mechanisms to cover some of these impacts.

A defense mechanism was first coined by Freud and developed by his daughter Anna. Defence Mechanism used in Psychoanalysis terms as the unconsious thoughts and acts which believed derives from the conflict circulations of  id, ego, and superego.

There are numbers of defence mechanisms that used by The ratman:

Reaction formation 
Ratman affects of love towards his father: he loved his father, however, he also hated his father, and he hated for these two affects.

The latter affects first derived from his unresolved oedipal and castration complex during his childhood and  father's unsavoury to his relationship with the lady his very fond with.

His father punished him when he did sex misdemenour i.e. masturbation. According to him, his mother  told him that it happened when he was 3,5 year old.
 
These two events have impacted Ratman for hating his father but he could not oust this feeling as he also loves his father.

Undoing 
Undoing is one of mechanisms of defense, coined by Freud. The undoing defines as when a person undo  harm thing for another cause, e.g. Ratman took a stone away from the road in purpose to protect his lady, but then he put it back in the same place.

Isolated
Patient usually likes to create ideas and keep them. Ratman's idea about 'do' and 'sanction'. His creation of ideas such a rule with its sanction, e.g. regarding to what Lieutenant had told him to pay back the money to the office man. 

Ratman created a conflict idea for himself on this order despite he knew what was really going on, but he kept the idea as he thought it something might happen with his father or his lady if he did not do it.

DBLN, 23.18-200111

Can Attitude Change?

Monday, January 10, 2011 JS Hanniffy 1 Comments

"Who says what to whom and with what effects". Hovlan, Kelly, Janis (1953).

Speaking about attitude it will remind us of LaPier study in 1934, how LaPier with his chinese couple friends found people's behaviour reacted differently from their attitudes. LaPier's and his friends were expecting no difficulty to find accomodation during their travel  and expecting undifferentiate-welcome of Americans attitudes and behaviours towards his chinesse couple friends. 

They were finding fine for the accomodations and in restaurants services. However, months later they  sent them a letter which was survey questions about whether they would accept or serve a chinese person or not. Surprisingly , LaPiere found 90 % of their answers said NO,  just view answering YES, and the rest was depend on the situation.

Hitherto, La Piere's finding influence other social psychologists to commit a deeper research about attitude and behaviour. What can actually influence a person's attitude to react differently from his or her behaviour? above all, here is the question: can attitude change?

We may wonder why we sometimes act differently from our thoughts, what can make us act in  a different way from our attitude?

Attitude has its own characteristics that can determine or predict to such a behaviour. These characteristics are developed by our surroudings or social world. For example in LaPiere's study, they may act different of attitude as that intra ethnics differential was sensitive; the situation i.e. issue matters about immigrants, has developed their attitudes toward immigrants.

Sounds like attitude is hard to change if it's believed that they're developed by our surroundings? Fortunately, it's not. Social psychologists believe that attitude can be changed by psychological efforts, and these efforts will involve several of important aspects, such as grassroots, local and central goverment.

A. The Persuasion

Persuasion can be done in three ways, is through audience, message, and affect. To its achievement these three ways may need  a cooperation between grassroots, local goverment, and professionals or intelectuals in its fields, by a formal education through at schools, champaigns, seminars, internet, etc.  Such as internet can also be a great advantage to spread the words when commit a champaign.

For example, you may want to people know that discrimination gives a bad effect to other person; to persuade people stop doing it is by briefing several of evidences from people who experience with it; spread your words to the world how you feel can touch other people's thoughts and hearts.

B. The Intention and Its Sanctions 

A sanction can prevent people to commit something against law. A champain about discrimination would not work at all if it's not supported by laws.

A persuasion may only change to some people's attitude and behaviour but not all of them. So a sanction would help its intention.

Above all, a cognitive dissonance may also help to change a person's attitude. Dissonance attitude similiar with ambivalance attitude, is in between two attitudes. Despite it deosn't give a strong influence of changing attitude but many psychologists infer it can reduce a prejudice towards something.

DBLN, 07.45-100111
 


1 comments:

Nice saying shows your character but that doesn't mean you can criticize. You can still do both in nice and polite way.

The Importance of Social Interaction In The Concept Of Self

Sunday, January 09, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Outline:

A. Definition of self
B. Theory and Research on Self-Concept
C. The Importance of Social Interaction In The Concept Of Self

A. Definitions Of Self

" Self emerges and is shaped by a social interaction".
(Hogg and Vaughan, 2010, p66).

"We look to other people to see the image of ourselves reflected back in their words, attitudes, expressions or actions. Yet strangely, we often fail to notice this, that the search of our own individual of self is a social activity".  (Ian Brukett, 2008, p1).

B. Theories and research on Self-Concept And Social Interaction

Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) found on their study of Looking Glass Self, that we see ourselves through other images and perceptions. Similar study to Cooley and Mead was also found by Schrauger and Schoenemen in 1979, 62 studies found that "we see ourselves as we think other see us".

C. The importance of Social Interaction in the self-concept

Self-concept is a person's definition of who she or he is. It's a description of who you are. When you're asked by someone who you are or what you do, you automatically describe your profile, such as your name, where you live, your hobby, etc. This description of person's profile is called components of the self-concept.

The description of the self-concept's components can be derived from its nature, and another is from other images and perceptions which are found in a social interaction. Many social psychologists agree that social interaction has a strong influence on our self-concept. 

This state is actually not a surprising finding as since age-old social interaction is indispensable by human beings. Social interaction is a tool for human beings to learn things, to develop our knowledge and our self-concept itself in a natural way. 

It is a natural way to develop our self-concept through social interaction. We learn naturally someone's behaviour through what is so-called schema. Once the schema attaches the mind it will automatically categorize the person into a type. In the other words, schema is an automatic-learning process. It is like attitude, schema is hard to change this is due to schema influencing our cognitions.

Schema is merely one of the examples of influencing contexts of self that I can describe in here. There are still many other influencing contexts of self that are also crucial to the importance of social interaction in the concept of self.

From those crucial influences in the context of self it then becomes clear for us that social interaction is indispensable in the concept of self.

Social world comes up with great advantages in our lives, a part of social interaction and material needs or keeping the world alive, it also gives us a true value for ourselves,  evaluating ourselves to become a better person.

DBLN, 07.58-080111

0 comments:

Nice saying shows your character but that doesn't mean you can criticize. You can still do both in nice and polite way.

Attitude And Behaviour

Saturday, January 08, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Attitudes refer ‘to very general evaluations that people hold of themselves, other people, objects and issues’ (Petty, 1995, p196)

Here is another interesting recent issue on psychology research, is studying if there is a link between attitudes and behaviour. Many social pyschologists still studying this issue and they come out with differ opinions. 

Such as Lapiere, in 1934, did a study to find out about how people react to different  etnics, in this case Lapiere did a study together with his friends who were a chinese couple.  They found that  people's behaviour appeared to be different from their attitude. 

In the other words, Lapiere study found there may a gap between attitude and behaviour. One thing that this study can be criticised is in that year ethnics differential might be very sensitive so people would react strangely or differently to other ethnic.


Unlike Lapiere's, another study from Krause, he did a study in 1995, and found how social interaction is crucial to the self-concept.


Still in the same study about attitude and  behaviour, there also different findings  from many social psychologists on whether attitudes can predict future or behaviour or not. Regardless of what they have found about attitude and behaviour, what do attitude and behaviour mean, exactly?

Attitude and behaviour have two different terms and meanings. Attitude is more related to a person's inner or thought while behaviour reffers to a person's acts. Both of these components are still studied by many social psychologists if there is a link between two of them.


How deep it the link is, I have my own theory that 'self' i.e. self-perception;self- knowledge; self-esteem; etc, has influenced person's attitude and behaviour; and as Krause, I also believe that a 'society' as well has a strong influence  to the affect of attitude and behaviour. 

DBLN, 11.59-070111







0 comments:

Nice saying shows your character but that doesn't mean you can criticize. You can still do both in nice and polite way.

New Year's Resolution 2011

Friday, January 07, 2011 JS Hanniffy 0 Comments

Here I am back again to a somber life. The weather, the activity, the life, the --- everything. I try not to complain about things, not in this year particularly as I want everything is better than the previous years: "this is what I always say in every single a new year" -- however, this is not my new year's resolution 2011!

I have never done or make a list of new year's resolution since I know what new year's resolution means. Actually, I'm not a big fans of making a list for self-promise: I prefer to call it as self-promise instead of new year's resolution. 

Isn't that called a self-promise when you attempt to do something better for yourself or others? and I don't know why I never do that, perhaps it because I'm not a believer for such as new year's resolution things.

I don't belie that a new year's resolution gives a positive encouragement to our next life as the list of new year's resolution often contains about promises, good promises for our life. The question is: does it really work in our life? and how long does it stand?

I give you easy example to answer the questions above. Do you realise in a new year mostly gyms full with members? I never realise until I know that most people have their new year's resolution to do more excercise. For a couple of months (no more than three months) the gym usually full with members, but then it becomes less gradually.
 
Some of us might have an aspiration and this aspiration that make us to keep trying to get it. When aspiration far from reach a negative thinking often come first in our mind and blame everything. 

Perhaps, by making a list of self-promise in a new year it would help us to get it harder and not to easy blame everything, and despite it's not for last longer but might give us a good start of what to do next year.

Regardless of what your new year's resolution just keep the aspiration alive!

Happy new year 2011 everyone!

DBLN, 07.56-07012011
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JS ESTD. 2008

Blogger since 2008, writing with a fresh perspective.

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